International Journal of Naval History

Contributions  of U.S. Naval Educational Centers

to the Development  of the Chilean Navy

in Relation to 

Naval Operations and Industry,

1945-1975.[1]

Captain Carlo Tromben, Ms AE, M.His

Centro de Estudios Estratégicos

Armada de Chile

INTRODUCTION: 1800-1940

            The Chilean Naval History since the Nineteenth century to the early Twentieth century showed a very significant British influence, as has been discussed by many authors. The collaboration started during the Chilean Independence and remained through all that period. Many officers and enlisted personnel of that ancestry were needed then to organize a fleet, because Chile did not have a significant naval heritage from Spain . 

            By contrast, the friendship between United States and this country took place only during a short period of the Chilean Independence. An example of this relationship was the incorporation to the Chilean fleet – commanded by Viceadmiral Lord Thomas Alexander Cochrane – of the corvette "Independencia" built in New York . The Commanding Officer of this ship was Paul Delano, a native of Massachusetts , and among the members of the crew there was his son Paul Hucley Delano. Both were commissioned as officers in the Chilean Navy. They were the only two important US citizens fighting in the naval actions against Spain .

            As that period passed, naval contacts with United States decreased. Chile considered Great Britain , the most convenient source of ships and officers in times of conflict. An exception to this approach was the Chilean effort to purchase American ships to fight Spain during the naval war of 1865‑1866. This endeavour was not very fruitful since only merchant ships were bought with the intention to transform them into warships. They arrived when the conflict had already finished. Buying ships in United States was a very difficult task, mainly because of the ruling situation after the Civil War.

            Between the end of the Nineteenth century and the three first decades of Twentieth century, only one US citizen appeared in the Chilean Naval History with a remarkable performance. He was the engineer Edward Hyatt who died fighting on board of a Chilean warship, during the Combat of Iquique in the 1879 War against Perú and Bolivia .

            At that stage of the history, the British naval influence in Chile has no contender at all. All steam propelled vessels of that time came from Great Britain , and very few from France . These naval constructions allowed the presence of many Chilean officers at the shipyards. Some of them were invited to sail in units of the Royal Navy. This activity was maintained up to the first third of the Twentieth century. The American naval historian Robert Sheina, summarizes this special relation[2] : 

... Favoritism as that showed by Great Britain  in Chile found no parallel in the other important navies of the world. The French, German, Italian, Spanish and the US fleets trained but a few Latin Americans between 1850 and 1930, being just  modest efforts compared to those of Great Britain. The Royal Navy also trained a few Argentines and Brazilians.

            In the same period, the exchange between US and Chile continued being scarce because the diplomatic and bilateral relations were also difficult. This topic is analyzed by Onofre Torres in Revista de Marina[3]. In his opinion, antagonist national interests strongly affected this relationship. Emilio Meneses agreed in a book making special reference to the naval factors that interfered in the diplomacy between both countries. For him, as Political Science expert[4]:

...the status and evolution of bilateral relations have been faithfully reflected in the nature of its contacts and naval perceptions. USS Baltimore's crisis... (or incident).... in 1891 and the Military Assistance Pact, in 1952, has been the lowest and highest points respectively of such relations.

                        William Sater also covers similar subjects from the American point of view in a book with a suggestive title, “ Chile and the United States . Empires in conflict”[5].

Left: Engeneer´s uniform c.1879.

Right: Portrait of Edward Hyatt, an American naval engineer serving in the Chilean Navy c. 1879. (Images from: Carlos Tromben, La Ingeniería Naval una especialidad Centenaria. Dirección de Ingeniería Naval Valparaíso, 1989).

US NAVY EMERGES IN THE CHILEAN NAVAL SCENE.

            The American influence in Latin American naval matters started previous to the First World War. At the end of this conflict, it had increased notoriously. The establishment of Naval Missions in Perú and Brazil and the building of two battleships for Argentina is an example of this. Chile remained outside this closeness. The British Naval Missions and the courses offered to Chilean Officers in that country continued until the 1930's. Then the serious economic crisis and other internal problems caused a decrease in the activities of the Chilean Navy.

At the beginning of the Second World War, this Service was in a very weak situation. Its efficient participation in protecting the initial neutrality and the natural resources for the war effort, as agreed between the US and Latin America , was very difficult. The transference of equipment and training started in that period. It consisted of patrol aircraft and the first courses in Pensacola in 1942. At the end of this conflict, the initial naval units were delivered, starting the presence of Chilean Officers in those shipyards. Under the same circumstances, some of them were on board of US units, witnessing the end of the war operations.

            The most intense period of US influence started after the Second World War, within the framework of treaties aimed to formalize a cooperation created during the conflict. The first was the Mutual Assistance Treaty signed in Rio de Janeiro in 1947. Later in 1951 and 1952[6], agreements between the US and Chile were signed to create Naval Missions in both countries. These offices had to coordinate and supervise the education and training programs - bought by Chile or granted according to the agreements - for officers and enlisted personnel.

Left: American and Chilean naval aviators in aircraft carrier training. Right: Main Entrance to Ellison Field, Pensacola , Florida . (Photo and sketch by Jorge Muñoz from: Carlos Tromben. “La Aviación Naval de Chile”. Viña del Mar , 1998.)

COURSES FOR CHILEAN OFFICERS IN THE MOST IMPORTANT US NAVAL EDUCATION CENTERS

            Naval Aviation training, initiated during the Second World War, gave rise to a new stage of the naval relationship above mentioned. This was followed by other courses developed in the US Naval Postgraduate School at that time in Annapolis and later in the west coast. The annual attendance of Chilean Naval Officers to this Institute is described in Annex A shows the kind of curriculum followed. It also presents similar information concerning American universities omitting medical courses and the like because they are not related with the topic of this paper. Some courses were followed in civilian universities because there were some programs of interest for the Chilean Navy not offered in Monterey , California . Such was the case of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, which were taken at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Some of these courses were provided by the Military Assistance Agreement, ensuring an adequate process of advice and execution.

            Later, courses in the Naval War College in Newport were offered. Information concerning Chilean Naval Officers attending to this center is in Annex B. Few years later, midshipmen begun to participate in courses offered in the US Naval Academy in Annapolis . Details are presented in Annex C. Chilean students attended this Academy once the US legislation allowed the admission of foreign people from friendly countries. For this purpose, the American Embassy in Santiago invited young people to participate in admission examinations. By the end of the 1950s, three students attended and upon their graduation they returned to civilian life without being commissioned.

            At the beginning of the 1960s, a group from the Chilean Naval Academy , headed by its Superintendent, visited Annapolis discovering the participation of these civilian students. Both parties agreed to extend future invitations to candidates able to continue their careers as Naval Officers. Thus, students who had stayed for three years at the Chilean Naval Academy continued their studies in the US . (See Annex C)

            Courses offered in these three important naval education centers of the US Navy were complemented by short periods of specialization and training in US naval schools and bases. Details of these courses are in Annex D.

            At that time, when naval units built in the US started to be transferred to Chile , courses for Chilean Officers of General Line and Naval Command were taking place in Monterey and Newport . Simultaneously, the graduates from Annapolis were being commissioned as Officers in the Chilean Navy. This educational process enabled the proper operation of ships built according to US standards and specifications, and the adoption of consistent communications and operational procedures, as well as tactics. These significant changes were complemented by short training and specialization courses, mainly in areas such as Fire Control, Gunnery, Damage Control, Torpedoes, ASW, Submarines, Naval Aviation and Marine Corps. (See Annex D).

            Education in the engineering field, obtained mainly in the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , was very important (See Annex F) because of the high rate of Chilean students compared with the number of officers at that time. It was also significant because of the curricular variety and the academic degrees obtained (Master Degrees, Engineer Degrees, and a Ph.D). Likewise, training periods combined with courses took place in US Shipyards mainly regarding the administration of those facilities.

New York .c 1960, when the education of Chilean naval officers was

in its peak (Author´s photo)

Naval Air Station Memphis Tennessee , c. 1960. Several aviation maintenance related schools were located here. The attendance of Chilian naval personnel was high in the sixties and seventies. (Author’s photo)

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE US NAVAL ACADEMY AND THE NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL TO THE NAVAL EDUCATION REFORMS IN CHILE .

            After the first decade of attendance to the above mentioned courses, the Chilean naval authorities decided to reform its Naval Academy . Having this aim in mind they requested US cooperation. The arrival in Chile of Dr William D. Shields, Academic Advisor to the US Naval Academy Superintendent, was the procedure chosen for such aid. In June 1961, after six months in Valparaíso, Dr Shields submitted a report containing several proposals[7]. It presented a detailed diagnosis about the functioning and programs of this academy, and gave reasonable improving ideas. In his introduction he stated, with realism, the differences of methods when he said:

 ....The mission of the Naval Academy, the requirements of the naval service, and the framing and procedures of the Chilean educational system point out that it would be inadequate and impracticable to try to match the pattern of the Chilean Naval Academy strictly accordingly to the curriculum of the US Naval Academy. However, there exist enough common points of interest with respect to education and motivation aims, as to make this study worth for and as to bring the author of this report to believe that practical suggestions can be made. These may establish the basis to reinforce the Naval Academy program, accordingly to the outlines showed when this study was requested.

            As a counterpart, a delegation of four officers and professors of the Chilean Naval Academy went to Annapolis for some weeks, discussing Dr Shields' suggestions. In that opportunity, it was decided to send Chilean Midshipmen to study in that Academy. It is interesting to quote the opinion of one of the Chilean Naval Academy Professors, Manuel Montecinos, about Doctor Shields[8]

... he was a learned man with very modern ideas, a serious researcher, and with a great vision. He obtained information in situ, attended different courses, examined faculties' work conditions, and Midshipmen's work regime. He made a complete report with all this information. Some improvements, although interesting, were considered not applicable to the Chilean reality. Anyway, the visit of Mr. Shields was rather fruitful.

The curricula and some working methods of the Chilean Naval Academy were modified at mid 1960s as a result of this academic exchange. It influenced also the design of the new campus to which the whole Academy was moved in 1967 in the same city of Valparaíso .

            In the 1960s and 1970s, some Monterey-graduated Chilean officers developed a significant reform in the Chilean Navy schools and in the educational programs related to mechanical, electrical, electronic and weapon naval engineer fields. Thus, the education received in the US postgraduate school and in other US universities had a multiplier effect within the structure of the Chilean Navy.

            The knowledge transference made by the US Navy, the direct education of Chilean officers in the Naval Postgraduate School and the US Naval Academy, and the resulting changes in the naval education in Chile , between 1945 and 1975, are quite unknown topics. The amount of Chilean students in US Naval centers shown in the annexes may seem unimpressive but the effect was significant for the length of the periods of attendance and the deepness of the education given. This program produced positive changes lasting even after the period covered by this document.

Left: Lunch time for students of the Chilean Naval Academy and USNA in Valparaíso c. 1960. (Merlet, Enrique. “Escuela Naval e Chile , Historia, Tradición y Promociones”. Valparaíso.2000).  Right: USNA, Annapolis . C.1975 (Author´s photos)

THE END OF A PERIOD AND ITS LATER CONSEQUENCES

            As a consequence of the sudden change of Government in Chile in September 1973, a period of strained relations started between both countries. This process recalled the problems experienced during the Nineteenth century. In June 1976 the US Congress approved an Amendment Law submitted by Senator Edward Kennedy aiming to interrupt assistance and military sales to Chile [9]. The period analyzed by this paper ends in 1975 because the attendance of Chilean officers to US naval schools had started to decrease at the beginning of that decade and because of the diplomatic difficulties[10] .

            In fact, the Chilean Navy had already decided, as many other Services of the Continent, to initiate again the construction of its units in Great Britain , going back to the situation before 1945. There were many reasons for this change. One was that the stock of Second World War vessels, of an already old technology, had been exhausted in the US .

            The process of knowledge and experience transference has a period of maturity after which the results can be seen. This action, from US Navy to its Chilean counterpart had its first effect in the naval operations. It was perceived at the end of the 1950s and emphasized during the next decade.

            In the naval industry field, that effect was delayed by a further Chilean effort to improve naval shipyards. In 1960 these were organized as a government owned company managed by naval officers. Important investments were made to increase its capacity. The engineering courses taken at the Naval Postgraduate School and civilian universities (Annex A) and the training periods of Shipyard Management (Annex D) were of great relevance. Many of its graduates had been promoted to higher ranks when the above new concept of organization of the Chilean naval shipyards was made effective. This gave more emphasis to the field of shipbuilding and modification of weapons and other systems.

            The main additional incentive for the growth of the Chilean naval industry was the banning of US sales of military equipment since 1976. Undoubtedly, the authors of this policy did not have this intention in mind. Such industrialization would have not been possible without the previous transference of knowledge. The process attained a total maturity at the end of the 1970s. The participants had not only the experience but the rank to guide the development of those industrial processes aimed to replace equipment imports, including auxiliary warships. This new procurement method started in that period and extended up to now. From that time on, foreign naval systems were no longer purchased as a closed package. The participation of Chilean officers educated in the US was increasingly higher in the specification design and the accomplishment verification. Domestic subcontracting and the locally produced parts were encouraged by them. The interactions between a Defense Service with national or foreign universities, research centers and industries were possible because the Chilean Navy representatives had adequate professional qualifications and personal conditions attained by the educational process already discussed. Their achievements were also possible by the confidence their superior officers entrusted on them to fulfill complex objectives. The collaboration from officers educated in Chile and in other countries also contributed to this goal.

            José Maldifassi and Pier Abetti have studied the Chilean defense and naval industry topic, analyzing furthermore the Argentine and Brazil cases. In this context, they wrote a book published in US:

According to ACDA (1990), Chile has ranked fifteen in world arms exports (1988). The surprising fact about this significant level of military exports is that as recently as 1980 Chile had a highly unknown defense industry and no previous record of military export capability..... International tensions with Perú during the mid-1970s and with Argentina during the late 1970s and early 1980s, together with the weapon embargo....... (from the U.S. )... encouraged the Chilean armed forces to develop further the local arms industry, resulting in a substantial effort of arms import substitution.... The most important activity in the Chilean defense industry has been the one carried out by the Navy's Shipyards and Workshops[11].

The authors mentioned did not analyze the important contribution made by the Chilean graduates in the US . This participation helped in the reorganization of the shipyards already detailed and the Research and Development activities accomplished in the Navy with the cooperation of Chilean universities. These aspects have not been adequately treated by the historiography, in spite of having been mentioned by US and British specialized magazines, and by the authors quoted who belong to the defense and industrial engineering field. Dr José Maldifassi is a Chilean naval officer graduated from Ressenlaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy , NewYork.

Left: The Chilean School of Naval Engineering, one of the establishments influenced by officers educated in USA . Right: The service uniform of a Chilean naval officer showing a clear US influence. (Carlos Tromben, La Ingeniería Naval una especialidad Centenaria. Valparaíso, 1989, Dirección de Ingeniería Naval)

CONCLUSIONS

            Although from the beginning of the Chilean Republic its naval relations have been mainly with Great Britain , between 1945 and 1975 the cooperation was closer with United States . This period started at the end of the Second World War and was very important during the Cold War. Its most remarkable impact was in the education and training, because this is the most lasting effect. Evidence of this is the change on how Naval Forces are operated and the surprising results in the capabilities of the Chilean industry in shipbuilding, system updating and manufacturing.

            The courses taken at the US Naval Academy, Naval Postgraduate School and Naval War College have direct relation with these developments. Considering them in this paper has been a way to render homage to the first of these institutes, which is celebrating its 150 years of existence. Our gratitude also extends to the rest of the US Navy for its effective and fruitful collaboration with the Chilean Navy in the period analyzed.

A night launching of a ship at the Naval Shipyard in Talcahuano , Chile . (Carlos Tromben, La Ingeniería Naval una especialidad Centenaria. Valparaíso, Dirección de Ingeniería Naval, 1989).

ANNEX A

POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION AT NPG ( MONTERREY ) AND AT CIVILIAN UNIVERSITIES FOR CHILEAN NAVAL OFFICERS (1945 - 1975)

ANNEX B

SUMMARY OF COURSES FOLLOWED BY CHILEAN NAVAL OFFICERS IN USA (1945-1975)

ANNEX  C

COURSES IN USA FOR CHILEAN NAVAL OFFICERS (1945-1975)

SUMMARY BY YEAR